Lines of Torres: an historical route

The Lines of Torres are beyond any doubt one of the most complex military defense systems ever built in the world. Erected between 1809 and 1814, this extraordinary system included 3 lines of defense, extending over 85 km from the Atlantic to the Tagus River.

The Lines of Torres were built by the future Duke of Wellington in absolute secrecy and with the decisive vision of the Portuguese Major Neves da Costa. They were essential to stop Napoleon's delusional hegemonic plans and prevent the troops led by Massena from conquering Lisbon, the capital of the Portuguese kingdom.

This imposing complex, which had an unusual impact on history, includes fortifications such as forts, strongholds and command posts, as well as obstacles such as steep cliffs and communication routes, including 152 military installations that demonstrate its impregnability.

The Continental Blockage

Napoleon became Emperor of France in 1804, a well-known figure in world history who had the ambition to expand French territory and conquer foreign countries.

In 1806, he imposed the Continental Blockade ("Le Blocus Continental") against England, forcing European countries to close their coasts to English ships.

However, Portugal, a historical ally of England, did not accept this blockade. The price was the three French invasions (1807, 1809 and 1810), which drove the country to ruin. Nevertheless, Portugal inflicted the first defeat on Napoleon's troops.

Portugal was England's oldest ally, a historic alliance dating back to 1385. Relations between the two nations were cemented over the centuries through politically motivated marriages, trade treaties and coalitions.

The French Invasions

In retaliation for Portugal's refusal to join the Continental Blockade imposed by Napoleon, French troops led by General Junot invaded Portugal on 18 November 1807. This was the beginning of the first French invasion.

The Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil to prevent the Portuguese kingdom from losing its independence in the face of the French threat. When Junot arrived in Lisbon, the royal family, the merchant fleet and the Portuguese court were already on their way to Rio de Janeiro, where they finally arrived unscathed after a turbulent voyage characterised by storms, plagues of lice and spoiling provisions.

On 1 August 1808, the English troops landed in Lavos near Figueira da Foz. They were largely responsible for the defeat of the French troops in the Battle of Roliça on 17 August and in the Battle of Vimeiro on 21 August. The first French invasion ended on 15 September, when English ships drove the last French troops out of Portugal.

In 1809, the French troops under the command of General Soult tried a new military strategy. They invaded Portugal from the north, marking the beginning of the second French invasion. At the Battle of Oporto on 18 May, they were repulsed by the English and Portuguese troops under the leadership of Sir Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, and retreated to Spain.

With the consent of the government, Wellesley marched into Spain to support the Spanish army and liberate Madrid. Their combined efforts led to victory in the bloody Battle of Talavera. However, on their visit to support the English army, the Spanish troops failed completely. After this battle, Wellesley became Viscount of Wellington.

The Lines of Torres

When Wellington returned to Portugal, he realised that cooperation with the Spanish army was out of the question. On the other hand, he was convinced that Portugal could be held.

Between 12 and 20 October 1809, Wellington explored the local topography very intensively.

Based on the thorough research of the Portuguese Major Neves da Costa, who believed in the so-called "active defence" - using the natural strengths of the territory to protect and support the defending army - and by carefully studying the geography and communication routes of the Lisbon peninsula, Wellington wrote his famous memorandum to Colonel Richard Fletcher on 20 October 1809. In it, he ordered the establishment of a defence system that would ensure control of Lisbon and provide a safe haven in the event of the British army's defeat.

Wellington identified a number of areas to be immediately fortified, the number of troops and their positions needed for the defence, and the lines of communication to be used. This plan was the beginning of the Lines of Torres, one of the most brilliant defence systems ever constructed anywhere in the world.

In November 1809, construction of the Lines of Torres began in S. Julião, Sobral and Torres Vedras. From November 1809 to September 1810, a series of fortifications were added north of Lisbon to protect the capital and combat French troops.

Operationally, the fortifications were divided into six different regions - Torres Vedras, Sobral, Alhandra, Bucelas, Montachique and Mafra.

The final defeat

On 24 July 1810, French troops under the command of General Massena invaded Portugal for the third time. Massena was Napoleon's most important commander, who wanted to "throw the British leopard into the sea". Massena took command of 65,000 men not far from the Portuguese border.

After the conquest of the Spanish town of Ciudad Rodrigo on 10 June 1810, the French army planned to capture the area around the Portuguese town of Almeida with its 2,000 inhabitants, where 5,000 soldiers and 115 artillery pieces were stationed. As the French troops approached, the command of the Anglo-Portuguese army ordered the evacuation of Almeida. The inhabitants packed up their belongings and left their homes.

Under the command of General Junot, the French troops surrounded Almeida. The historic siege began on 10 August 1810 and the defenders' garrison was commanded by the English colonel William Cox and the Almeida-born lieutenant Francisco Bernardo da Costa. The siege had already lasted 17 days when, at nightfall, a French shell triggered a chain explosion that destroyed the main powder magazine, where 75 tonnes of gunpowder were stored. Hundreds of casualties and enormous damage inside the fortress were the immediate consequences of the tragedy.

On 27 August 1810, Massena demanded the immediate surrender of the allied troops, and Cox had no choice but to surrender.

The fortress of Almeida was valuable not only because of its proximity to the Spanish border, but also because it was located on one of the axes that provided access to the centre of Portuguese territory. It enabled the French troops to secure the lines of communication and supply in its rear, which were essential for the success of the military offensive.

In return, Wellington resorted to a radical measure - the "scorched earth policy". The population was evacuated from Leiria behind the lines and the entire area was turned into a desert. Everything that could be used to feed the enemy was destroyed - such as windmills and cornfields. This scorched earth policy was decisive for the Allied victory and led to extreme famine among the desperate French troops.

After a ten-day, 120-mile march across devastated and deserted fields, the French army finally reached the impressive Buçaco mountain, where the English and Portuguese troops were concentrated. In a bloody battle in which almost 5,000 people lost their lives, the French troops were beaten back on 27 September 1810. The Battle of Buçaco was not part of Wellington's strategy for the defence of Portugal, but it was fought in the hope of saving the most important part of Portugal from death and destruction.

The French were deeply impressed by the size of the Lines of Torres. Massena and his military service desperately searched for a vulnerable spot during various reconnaissance missions. However, General Massena and his staff soon realised that it was impossible to break through these lines without suffering heavy losses. After the failed attack on 14 October 1810, Massena and his troops remained at the Lines of Torres for three and a half months. At the same time, the Allied armies grew in numbers and confidence. On 8 April, the French army finally withdrew from Portugal, bringing the third and final French invasion to an end.

The lines of Torres were the key to Wellington's strategy of defeating the French troops and recapturing Spain. The victory of the Allied troops in the Peninsular War had a lasting impact on the end of the Napoleonic Wars and accelerated the demise of Napoleon's hegemonic ambitions.

Historical Route of the Lines of Torres
Praça Dr. Eugénio Dias, n.º 12
2590-016 Sobral de Monte Agraço
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https://www.rhlt.pt/en/

The Continental Blockage

The French Invasions

The Lines of Torres

The final defeat

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